Appeal of Robert Frosts Out Out Essay - 1055 Words

There have been many interesting and appealing poems written throughout history. One of the most interesting and appealing poems is Robert Frost’s â€Å"Out, Out†. The poem has the ability to make the reader visualize an event in vivid detail without making it into a short story. The poem depicts a very dramatic scene and makes it seem as if the reader is really there. Poems are generally thought to be about love and feelings, but some poems can actually be like a short story; these are called narrative poems, which means that they tell a story. The poem â€Å"Out, Out† is a great example of a narrative poem, telling the story of a young boy cutting a tree. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Robert Frost captures one’s attention with the opening line†¦show more content†¦Now is when the snarling buzz-saw proves its evil growl to mean something as it â€Å"leaped out of the boy’s hand, or seemed to leap† (15). Frost did not say that the boy dropped the saw or that the boy lost control of the saw, but that the saw itself leaped out of the boy’s hand of its own free will. The saw is not happy enough with its free will to leap out at the boy but it also cuts off his hand â€Å"neither refused the meeting. But the hand!† (18). nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The poem now gets to the peak of its drama. The saw cut the boy’s hand off and he is desperately trying to figure out what to do â€Å"holding up the hand half in appeal, but half as if to keep the life from spilling.† (20-22). The boy is bleeding as one would expect from getting cut at a major artery at the wrist. The boy’s blood is spilling out and he is trying to keep his life from spilling out. Frost does not call it blood but he calls it the boy’s life to let you know that he is slowly dying as he bleeds more and more. The boy does not seem to know what really happened, he is in a state of shock. The boy tells his sister â€Å"Don’t let him cut my hand off—The doctor, when he comes. Don’t let him, sister! So. But the hand was already gone† (25-27). The boy did not realize that he had already lost his hand. The doctor comes and puts the boy in the â€Å"dark of ether† (28) and the doctor tried to do what he could but it was to no avail the boyShow MoreRelatedRobert Frost Essay1396 Words   |  6 PagesRobert Frost Robert Frost is one of the few twentieth century poets to receive critical acclaim and popular acceptance (Magill 728). His simplistic style appeals to the novice and expert poetry reader alike. Robert Frosts understated emotional appeal attracts readers of all literary levels. Frost develops subtly stated emotions and a clever use of imagery in his poetry. Influences on his poetry include his family, work, and other life experiences (Oxford 267). Frost also works to developRead MoreEssay on The Intricate Meanings of Robert Frost s Poetry784 Words   |  4 PagesRobert Frost is considered by many to be one of the greatest poets of the twentieth century. Frost’s work has been regarded by many as unique. Frost’s poems mainly take place in nature, and it is through nature that he uses sense appealing-vocabulary to immerse the reader into the poem. In the poem, â€Å"Hardwood Groves†, Frost uses a Hardwood Tree that is losing its leaves as a symbol of lifeâ €™s vicissitudes. â€Å"Frost recognizes that before things in life are raised up, they must fall down† (BloomRead More Class Struggle in Robert Frosts Poem Out, Out Essay1676 Words   |  7 PagesClass Struggle in Robert Frosts Poem Out, Out- Robert Frosts poem Out, Out- is developed around a clear and unquestionable moment: a horrifying accident in which a young boy is mutilated by a buzz saw. Frosts underlying message, however, isnt nearly as straightforward. As the poem develops, two clear levels of interpretation seem to surface. While on the basic level the poem would seem to be a simple metaphor for mans struggles with nature, a more careful analysis suggests a level ofRead MoreModern F. Robert Frost1547 Words   |  7 PagesDavid Ahlman Charles Vogel English 2520-601 Due Date: November 9th, 2015 Robert Frost: Modern Multiplicity Robert Frost is a multiple poet. –Louis Untermeyer What is customary and, therefore, stereotypical of modern artistic thought is the belief that only one central meaning can be gathered from any one reading; that these singular interpretations support, give credence and justify hegemonic forces or grand narratives in society. Defining the term â€Å"modern† in his work The Postmodern Condition:Read MoreThe Poetry of Robert Frost Essay754 Words   |  4 PagesRobert Frost has long been recognised as one of America’s greatest poets. Each poem begins with a straightforward description of a place or situation and then gently moves towards commentary and reflection on human life. There are life lessons to be learned in every poem which appeal to the reader both intellectually and emotionally. Frost deals with various aspects of human life throughout his poetry, such as; childhood, relationships, death, decision making, depression etc. Frost expresses theseRead More A Comparison of the Poetry of Emily Dickinson and Robert Fr ost1062 Words   |  5 PagesThe Poetry of Emily Dickinson and Robert Frost The poetry of Emily Dickinson and Robert Frost contains similar themes and ideas. Both poets attempt to romanticize nature and both speak of death and loneliness. Although they were more than fifty years apart, these two seem to be kindred spirits, poetically speaking. Both focus on the power of nature, death, and loneliness. The main way in which these two differ is in their differing use of tone. The power of nature is a recurring themeRead MoreBitterness: Poetry and World1016 Words   |  5 PagesIn the past and present, there have been numerous poets who have composed similar pieces to those of other poets. In 1859, Emily Dickinson produced Success is counted sweetest. In1923, Robert Frost wrote Fire and Ice. That same year, Wallace Stevens created Gubbinal. These three poems share much in common. They contain many of the same elements of poetry, such as connotative meaning, imagery, symbolism, and tone. First, the three famous poems all possess a connotative meaning . WithinRead MoreThe Tuft Of Flowers By Robert Frost864 Words   |  4 Pages Robert Frost said many times throughout his life that all men share a common bond. In his poem â€Å"The Tuft of Flowers† he analyzes the potential of such a bond, in first person. Frost turns an everyday common job, into discovering a common bond with another laborer. The author uses a comparison between aloneness with a sense of understanding to demonstrate his theme of unity between two men. In another one of Frost’s poems â€Å"Birches† he imagines walking through the woods looking at all the trees,Read MoreTwinkle, Little Star1512 Words   |  7 PagesTwinkle, Little Star Entwined within two poems, one titled Bright Star and authored by John Keats, the other called Choose Something Like a Star penned by Mr. Robert Frost, emerges the similar theme of the human need for stability and sense of permanence. Although varied in literary devices, sub themes, and structure the like poems strongly convey this common ideal and do so with the powerful icon of the star, or the heavens. The star historically represents the eternalness of the heavens andRead MoreThe Theme Of Birches By Robert Frost1065 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"Birches† by Robert Frost Have you ever walked through a frozen forest? Well, Robert Frost will take you on a journey through the forest in his poem, â€Å"Birches.† He also takes readers on a journey through life and memories. The main character of the poem, the speaker, is an old man, who throughout the poem’s story, is looking back on his childhood. When he walks through the forest, he sees the broken tree branches and thinks back to a time when those broken branches were created by swinging on them

Depression And Its Effects On Depression - 2333 Words

Depression is an illness that no one enjoys talking about, and that is because of what the disease is itself. Since I have been clinically depressed, I understand first-hand the sinking feeling that comes with it. Imagine a leech on your body permanently sucking enjoyment and happiness instead of blood, or imagine being stranded within a bottomless pit with no sight of the sun. That is how I describe depression. However, there are ways to get through it and kick off that leech or climb out of that pit. There are many options to assist in overcoming depression, including medication or therapy, and although it is much easier said than done, many people, including myself, overcome the hopelessness that is depression. Many people have started to use depression as a buzzword for any amount of sadness. Numerous times throughout my middle school experience I heard people claiming to be depressed over breakups and other teenage problems. However sad they may have been, I don’t believe they were depressed. Not to say that people need to reach a certain age or maturity to truly experience depression. According to Danuta Wasserman, â€Å"An estimated 0.2-2% of children develop depression before puberty† (26). Throughout most people’s development, they have had some experience with people who suffer with depression. However, the difficulty with adolescent depression is that the symptoms are difficult to discern from ordinary development. Many children withdraw during these tumultuous timesShow MoreRelatedDepression And Its Effects On Depression1531 Words   |  7 Pagesknown as depression. Depression causes a deep sadness to a person and can have major effects on a human being’s life. As humans know life is sacred and no one wants to live life in a depressed state. In some cases depression can be repressed and even cured. Certain treatments like therapy and antidepressants are viable solutions for depression. About nine percent of Americans suf fer from some form of depression. The different types of depressions include: dysthymia, postpartum depression, seasonalRead MoreDepression And Its Effects On Depression1434 Words   |  6 Pagesthey will likely to suffer from depression. What is the meaning of depression? Depression can actually affect people’s thought and feelings, people who suffer from depression may feel sad, hopeless and lose their direction in doing things. Even though depression is a common illness in the society, people still consider depression as a sensitive topic and does not talk much about it. In fact, people have to be aware of this serious problem and try to overcome depression by standing strong together withRead MoreDepression And Its Effects On Depression1411 Words   |  6 Pages Depression is a broad area because it has to do with the emotional state of a person. It can either make you stronger or break you down to nothing. Many people don’t notice they’re depressed b ecause they’re either in denial or can function regularly with the condition. What is depression? Depression is a state of mind along with feelings of loneliness, hopelessness, and or uncertainty in life. Depression can trigger in so many areas in life such as: losing a child, employment, home or evenRead MoreDepression And Its Effects On Depression1687 Words   |  7 Pages Depression is a psychoneurotic disorder characterized by lingering sadness, inactivity, and difficulty in thinking and concentration. Depression is one of the most common psychiatric conditions encountered (â€Å"Depression†). Doctors have all types of antidepressants that have been used worldwide for patients with depression. Introduced in the late 1950’s, antidepressants were used to accomplish their task by inhibiting the body’s reabsorption of these neurotransmitters, thus allowing them to accumulateRead MoreDepression And Its Effects On Depression1316 Words   |  6 Pagesthe thought that depression is something that all of us have experienced at some point in our lives. It focuses on adolescents because during this period we are young and vulnerable and may not know how to cope with situations or circumstances that may lead us into depression. Factors such as going through puberty and issues at home with parents can all cause depression. This paper will talk about what is depression, how families can affect depression in the child, and how depression can lead to longRead MoreDepression And Its Effects On Depression1371 Words   |  6 Pages Depression is a widely misunderstood disorder. It is a psychological condition that greatly effects the way one thinks, feels and subsequently behaves. â€Å"Some authorities have estimated that at least 12% of the adult population have had or will have an episode of depression of sufficient clinical severity to warrant treatment† (Schuyler and Katz as cited by Beck, 1979, p.1). Depression is not fleeting and effects individuals differently. The treatment of depression has become extensively medicalizedRead MoreDepression And Its Effects On Depression1317 Words   |  6 PagesDepression, a word we all have heard, not all of us understand, and a select few are trying to dissect. However, in doing so, theories are created, and sometimes those same theories will have negatives consequences. In an attempt to further understand depression, I chose Depression’s Upside. If one were simply reading the title, one would assume this would be about some sort of break through in the Psychology field of research, or at the very least an optimistic view on depression. However, the entireRead MoreDepression And Its Effects On Depression1490 Words   |  6 PagesIn popular culture depression has become a thing that is seemingly almost sought after. A lot of youth use depression to have an edge or some kind of thing that makes them different. I feel like this ideology invalidates people with rea l mental illness and diagnosed depression. I say this but have also fallen victim to this aesthetic or aura that a lot of people portray. Although hard to define, depression can basically be summed up to be the lack of hope or courage pertaining to your life. It causesRead MoreDepression And Its Effects On Depression1093 Words   |  5 PagesDepression is in fact a legitimate mental disorder. There is too much research to doubt its existence. However, the title of â€Å"depression† is being handed out like cotton candy at the state fair. Too many people cry wolf for society to completely believe and understand the seriousness of the condition. With the number of people being diagnosed with depression growing, more and more people begin to feel that the condition is merely fabricated and can simply be cured with willpower and a little effortRead MoreThe Effects Of Depression And Its Effects On Depression1642 Words   |  7 Pages Depression, 2 Every single day, across the entire world, people are diagnosed with clinical depression. I think a lot of people tend to see depression as a excuse/reasoning for something they ve done. In reality, there have been many discussions done and research studies completed on depression to see whether or not it is genetically passed down or learned through experiences/influences. I think it is safe to say that both genetic and environmental factors play a role in depression. In

Natural Law Theory And Legal Positivism †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Natural Law Theory And Legal Positivism. Answer: Introduction The true nature of natural law theory is often misunderstood while providing that natural law theories are not consistent with the theories of legal positivism. It has always been provided that the concept provided by natural law theories is totally different from that of the theories of legal positivism. There have been various studies conducted in order to prove that legal positivism is totally different from natural law theory. Natural law theories emphasizes on justice equality and morality where is legal positivism focuses on making law according to the needs of the society. Natural law theory has the primary function of securing justice. It provides that laws which are not just cannot be regarded as laws at all. Legal positivism on the other hand as the function of providing common good for the community. Therefore prima facie observation of a person who is a believer of natural law theory would be that a positive law theory which is not in accordance to the theories of divine law or natural law cannot be regarded as a law at all. The people only have a moral obligation of obeying principles which are not consistent to natural law and there is no legal obligation imposed on the people to obey them[1]. The purpose of this paper is to analyze various studies on both natural law theory and legal positivism in order to showcase that natural law theories are not totally inconsistent with positive law theories as it is generally depicted. The paper also analyses the gap in various studies to point out issues if any with such studies have ignored in relation to both natural law and positive law theory. Natural law theory Natural Law is a wide-ranging and frequently misappropriated concept incorporated round numerous schools of science, philosophy, history, law and theology. Truly, Immanuel Kant repeated to us,'What is law?' may be said to be about as embarrassing to the jurist as the well-know question What is Truth? is to the logician[2]. As per d'Entreves and Passerin natural law is a theory of moral with respect to jurisprudence which provides that low has to be based on ethics and morality[3]. It states that law is made of and based on what is ethically and morally correct. Human can discover natural law through the use of reasons and choosing between the good and the evil. Thus the power of natural law is derived from finding out specific universal principles in ethics and morality. The distinction between nature and law, convention and customs had been emphasized on by Aristotle, Socrates and Plato. What is provided through law is diverse with respect to the place, however what is provided through nature has to be consistent everywhere. Many consider Aristotle as the father of natural law. Aristotle provided the argument in the book Rhetoric that separate from specific laws which each jurisdiction has made up for themselves there is a higher law or common law which exists in accordance to the nature. Here he was talking about Natural law. According toAtkins the theory of natural law is interpreted as the theory which provides that specific ethical and moral laws always transcend time, government and culture[4]. The universal stands are applicable on mankind during all the time of their existence. The specific ethical and moral standards are discoverable by and inherent in all of mankind and are the fundamental of a just and equal society[5]. As stated by Kugler, Peter and Michael the concept of natural law is ambiguous. It points out to a form of ethical and morally correct theory along with a legal theory[6]. However the fundamentals of both the types of theory are independent of each other logically. Natural law does not point out towards the law of nature all the laws which science objects to define. As per the moral theory of natural law the ethical standards which guide human behavior are to some extent derived objectively from human nature itself along with the true nature of the world. Even when the theories are logically independent of each other they intersect. As per the legal theory of natural law the power of legal provisions mandatorily extracts to the least in part from consideration in relation to moral merit of such principles. There are various kinds of legal theory in relation to natural law which are different from each other in relation to the role which morality place in finding out the authority of the legal provision. According to Wright and Fletcher a collection of mandatory and necessary situation for presence of law which distinguishes law from unlawful provision in every world possible exist[7]. The natural law classical theories such as a Theory provided by Thomas Aquinas emphasizes on the overlapping between legal theories and natural law moral theory. Another development of the natural law classical theory is the theory of new natural ISM as provided by John Finnis. To the contrary the theory of procedural natural ISM as provided by l fuller rejects the conceptual naturalist idea which states that there are mandatory substantive model restrictions on the content of law. Lastly the theory provided by Ronald Dworking is a critique and response of the theories relating to legal positivism. All these theories Aryan relation to one or more fundamental tenants of natural law legal theory and are significant to its influence and development Legal positivism Legal positivism is the theory that the presence and subject of law rest on not on the merits of social facts but the fact itself. The British jurist John Austin (1790-1859) articulated it thus: The existence of law is one thing; its merit and demerit another. Whether it be or be not is one enquiry; whether it be or be not conformable to an assumed standard, is a different enquiry. The positivist theory does not say that law's virtues are incoherent, trivial, or fringe to the viewpoint of law[8]. It speaks that they do not define whether legal systemsor laws exist. Whether a legal system is present in a society is based on the existence of definite arrangements of governance, not on the degree to which it contents principles of justice, the rule of law or democracy. What laws are applicable in that arrangement rest on on what social standards its bureaucrats identify as commanding; for instance, judicial decisions, social customs or legislative enactments. The statistic that a rule w ould be, wise, efficient, prudent or just, is not ever adequate motive for discerning that it is essentially the law, and the detail that it is unwise, unfair, imprudent or inefficient is not ever adequate cause for unbelieving it. As perMacCormick positivism, law is a substance of what has been suggested (decided ,ordered, tolerated, practiced, , etc.); as it might be said in a additional contemporary idiom, positivism is the opinion that law is a social creation[9]. Austin thought the theory simple and glaring. Though it is perhaps the leading opinion among logically motivated philosophers of law, it is also the topic of opposing clarifications composed with insistent misunderstandings and criticisms[10]. According to Austin and Betham, law is a marvel of big societies with aautonomous: a determinate group or person who have absolute and supremede factoauthority -- they are followed completely or maximum others but do not themselves likewise follow anyone else. The legal principles in that society are a subdivision of the sovereign'sinstructions: general orders that apply to classes of actions and people and that are backed up by threat of strength or sanction. This imperatival philosophy is positivist, for it recognizes the presence of legal systems with outlines of obedience and command that can be determined without bearing in mind whether the sovereign has a ethical right to tenet or whether his orders are commendable. It has two more distinguishing Characteristic. The philosophy ismonistic: it signifies all laws as taking a solitary form, implementing responsibilities on their specific subjects, although not himself on the sovereign. The imperativalist admits that final lawmaking authority may be self-limiting, or restricted outwardly by what public judgment will bear, and also that legal systems comprise requirements that are not necessities (for example , definitions, permissions and so on). However they consider these as portion of the non-legal material which is essential for, and part of, each legal system. (Austin is a more generous on this argument). The philosophy is alsoreductivist, for it upholds that the normative language used in unfolding and asserting the law -- talk of rights, authority, obligations, and so on -- can all be examined lacking rest in non-normative relationships, eventually as concatenations of declarations about obedience and power[11] The concept of natural law and legal positivism. According to Benson positive law is only considered as law because it has been brought to existence by mankind. Such law can be made based in a procedure which has been determined previously or in an arbitrary manner[12]. As provided by Cooper and Wayne natural law only gives relevance to justice and is in compliance with internal values associated with the nature of humans[13]. Therefore it can be evidently said that with respect to both the concepts of law there can be various possible distortions and the existence of which has been supported by history. According to Banner "The danger of arbitrariness exists always and everywhere when man acts with power in his hands. Thus the side effects of such distortion cannot be evaded by mankind[14]. Hart and Herbert states that positive law has a benefit that it is very easily approachable and definable therefore it leads to lesser obscurities with respect to its admiration[15]. In addition the concepts of positive which provides the greatest difficulties towards interpretation are those concepts which are held by natural law as abstract concepts. Positive law is implemented in the society either through willful acceptance of such law by the society or the authority being powerful enough to forcefully impose such laws on the people. During the times of dictatorship the most absurd principles were also considered as laws as they had been imposed upon the society. However according to Priel the modern day legal system of the world has come far off the forceful implementation of laws as most of the nations in the world are now a democracy which is the government for the people and made by the people[16]. Relationship between natural and positive law As positive law sources its inspiration from abstract concept of natural law it is able to function with appropriate adequacy in democracy. This is because almost all social struggles in relation to democracy have been primarily based on these concepts which have been adopted by the society to a significant degree and have been institutionalized by law. Therefore in the natural sense illogical reflection provided as follows cannot be avoided. Latest provided that any provision for the purpose of becoming a legal provision presupposes social struggle which implement it in form of law and it is very evident that the reference to natural law of being more ethical comparatively is superfluous[17]. To make it simple on any occasion, authority, from which ever source it may be derived is what brings into existence and implements law. Therefore positive law is the one which is always talked about. According to Campbell a serious factor is overlooked by such findings which is consciousness[1 8]. As stated by Leiter consciousness is the root of every such social individual collective process. In addition consciousness itself determines social struggle[19]. The basic notion of natural law itself governs social struggle as they are inspired by it. For instance as provided by the declaration of America and French Revolution all men are born equal and are provided with specific fundamental and inalienable rights, such provisions clearly belong to the area of natural law. Subsequently the proper interpretation of the concept of natural law leads to the establishment of the rule of law through the efforts of the society[20]. However when results are the only thing which consciousness cares for the society is totally not prepared for a reversal in understanding of and therefore subjected to distortion of concepts which can also take place in legal form[21]. This concept is restricted to an Ex Post facto reflex action in relation to instincts where a person rises when he is not given the means of survival and not before it when such deprivation was in the stage of preparation[22]. Therefore the reflection of the society is not perfect, it operations are only limited to the tangible and obvious situations, which is in the areas of competition and needs, as it itself is competitive and, so stillborn, therefore it is not able to provide support the enduring forces of arbitrary governance and implementation of provisions which are invoked by the time when it is needed. In addition it is indifferent to these principles to the extent it does not come in contact with the individual in a way which is tangible. The n again the concept of natural law comes to the mind of men but only after the event has taken place. Subsequently it can be provided that possible in vocation inter alia in relation to natural law is in relation to search moments when legal positivism is not able to show its connection with history and in such cases natural law functions as the law[23]. Conclusion From the above analysis it can be provided that the aim of both legal positivism and natural law theory is to provide for a better society where law prevails. The natural law theory is based on using moral and ethical principles in relation to law whereas legal positivism focuses on providing the best results to the society by the imposition of law. Both the legal theories work for the betterment of mankind by providing equality and Justice. It is not correct to hold at legal theories in relation to positivism and not consistent with that of natural law theory as positive law in most of the cases are in some form the right from natural law. The above discuss studies which have been conducted in the area of natural law and legal positivism relationship, missed out one significant point in relation to the relationship between legal positivism and natural law theories, which is that as both the theories have the intention to promote law in the society and as both of them are prima facie inconsistent to each other. It is inevitable that application of legal positivism and natural law theory alone cannot be suitable to address the legal needs of the society. As legal positivism is to a large extent providing legal solution in the modern world it can be provided that positive law is a product of natural law in most of its aspects and thus the true nature of natural law theory is often misunderstood. Bibliography Atkins, Jed W. "Zenos Republic, Platos Laws, and the Early Development of Stoic Natural Law Theory."Polis: The Journal for Ancient Greek Political Thought32.1 (2015): 166-190. Banner, Stuart. "Natural Law in Court: A History of Legal Theory in Practice." (2015): 428. Benson, Richard. "Bioethics and the Human Goods: An Introduction to Natural Law Bioethics."The National Catholic Bioethics Quarterly16.3 (2016): 535-538. Campbell, Tom D., and Jeffrey Goldsworthy, eds.Judicial power, democracy and legal positivism. Routledge, 2017. Campbell, Tom D., ed.Legal positivism. Routledge, 2016. Cooper, Kody Wayne.Upon the earth there is not its like--?: Thomas Hobbess natural law theory of morality and politics. Diss. 2014. d'Entreves, Alexander Passerin.Natural law: An introduction to legal philosophy. Routledge, 2017. Hart, Herbert LA. "The New Challenge to Legal Positivism (1979)."Oxford Journal of Legal Studies36.3 (2016): 459-475. Kugler, Peter N., and Michael T. Turvey.Information, natural law, and the self-assembly of rhythmic movement. Routledge, 2015. Legarre, Santiago. "HLA Hart and the Making of the New Natural Law Theory."Jurisprudence8.1 (2017): 82-98. Leiter, Brian. "Marx, law, ideology, legal positivism."Virginia Law Review(2015): 1179-1196. Loughlin, Martin, and Samuel Tschorne.Public law. Routledge, 2016. MacCormick, Neil, and Ota Weinberger.An institutional theory of law: new approaches to legal positivism. Vol. 3. Springer Science Business Media, 2013. Marske, Charles E., Charles P. Kofron, and Steven Vago. "The Significance of Natural Law in Contemporary Legal Thought."The Catholic Lawyer24.1 (2017): 5. Priel, Dan. "Toward Classical Legal Positivism."Virginia Law Review(2015): 987-1022. Raz, Joseph. "Legal positivism and the sources of law."Arguing About Law117 (2013). Schauer, Frederick. "The Path-Dependence of Legal Positivism."Virginia Law Review(2015): 957-976. Tuori, Kaarlo.Critical legal positivism. Routledge, 2017. Waluchow, Wilfrid. "Legal positivism, inclusive versus exclusive (2001)."Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, London: Routledge, available at https://pt. scribd. com/doc/56008841/Waluchow-LegalPositivism-Inclusive-Versus-Exclusive (accessed on 10 December 2015)(2016). Wright, Benjamin Fletcher.American Interpretations of Natural Law: A Study in the History of Political Thought. Routledge, 2017.

Planned Parenthood - Argumentative Essay free essay sample

Recently, the federal government Is trying to pass the Pence Amendment, which would eliminate funding to these Institutions. The federal government needs to realize how important Planned Parenthood Clinics are too numerous individuals and the struggles that such people will face if the organization is demolished due to extreme lack of funding. Without these clinics, many individuals will be left stranded, and most likely, susceptible to declined health, due to the loss of early screenings and treatments that will no longer be available to them at a rate they can manage financially.Planned Parenthood is a predominantly government funded establishment that revised free or heavily discounted medical education, prescriptions, and procedures in regards to sexual diseases and pregnancies to all who inquire. If the organization is not funded, it is taken from predominately low socioeconomic households and minors. As stated in Teases article, 75 percent of people who use Planned Parenthoods services are at or below the poverty level (5), and the few with money are using the government funded crowded establishment Planned Parenthood. We will write a custom essay sample on Planned Parenthood Argumentative Essay or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This is one of the reasons that cuts would be so devastating. As reported by National Right to Life News, legislators were three times more responsible to high-income constituents than middle-income constituents and were the least responsive to the needs of low-income constituents (favorite 5). This is another case where it will be the poor that will endure the hardship. It Is much easier to cancel a free service when those without money, ergo power, are the mall people who will suffer.In addition to taking away the availability of health provisions, this amendment will be taking away millions of jobs nationwide. Within each of these clinics are ultimate employees ranging from customer service attendants to doctors. There are more than 880 health centers nationwide and several administrative offices across the country (Planned Parenthood 2). Are not we supposed to be focusing on making jobs available within our nation? Taking away countless Jobs will damage this nation Instead of benefit It. It will cause more suffering, which Is what Planned Parenthood is trying to eliminate.The eliminating of funds to clinics will cause many to go without preventative care such as contraception. If people no longer have access to rite control, the population rate will continue to rise. When the government takes away funding, and therefore, birth control, unplanned births will happen and with that additional fees that the government will have to cough up. Sure, you save money up front when defending Planned Parenthood but In the long run you are causing a every $1 spent on family planning saves $4. It is fiscally responsible (1).With unwanted pregnancies, come unwanted children or children for whom we are not prepared for which go into foster care as well as becoming wards of the state which s directly paid for by the government or families dependent on other government subsidies. Overall, the government will be creating a bigger problem instead of embracing the benefits Planned Parenthood clinics provide to individuals everywhere. Although Planned Parenthood is mostly associated with abortion services that is not what they promote or advertise. For years, they have been all about educating the youth on the risks of participating in sexual activities as well as providing many different kinds of preventative care. Education is extremely important and valued in this country. Taking away funding to an institution that promotes and instills protection and planning is not going to help our youth become well and more aware individuals. It is the educational materials such as pamphlets, magazines, and medical Journals, as well as the educated staff that the clinics provide, in which are exceedingly important in keeping our citizens safe.When funding goes away, those important services and amenities go away but the actual sexual activities do not. This leaves us in a much more risky environment with fewer resources. In addition to the clinics providing education they go further and provide unseeing for all aspects of topics. An individual can rest assured knowing there is always someone they can talk to and confide in when they dont know where else to turn. Also, the counselors provide a release for those individuals that have suffered abuse and need assistance.With all these valuable services, it is not clear why our government would do anything to hinder this organization when it is obviously helping so many people every day. It makes you wonder what could be of greater importance than all of this that would lead supporters to banning this great organization. Supporters of the bill that would banish funding for Planned Parenthood are guided by their beliefs that the organization generates activities of sin and creates sinners.They are motivated by their religious views that abortion is an unforgivable sin and those that partake in or make abortions accessible are sinners. They are attacking Planned Parenthood because it is the main provider of abortions every year. According to B. A. Robinson, there has been over $13 million in damage caused by violent anti-abortion groups since 1982, in over 1 50 arson attacks, bombings, and hooting (4). While they are correct in this fact, they are not taking in all that Planned Parenthood is.While they focus on the abortion services the clinics provide, they ignore the many incredible things they offer aside from abortions. They dont realize that by taking away Planned Parenthoods funding, they are also taking away the preventative measures they provide in order to try and eliminate the need for abortions. The benefits of Planned Parenthood deserve the federal funding that is given to them. The amount of lives that are positively affected not only outweighs the uncial drain of the organization, but should be what federal money goes towards if it goes towards anything that helps people.

Macroeconomics essays

Macroeconomics essays All those who live in the United States are accustomed to private property. Everyday situation sometimes lead to what life would be like without it. One can see what the effects are to living in a private society and realize how efficiency and justice are raised to an overall level. This takes place within an apartment building in Washington DC, however many apartments throughout the United States would off the same aspects. Upon living in the apartments, tenants are charged a monthly rent as well as an additional bill for utilities, which includes gas, water, fuel, oil, and electricity. The apartments are considered "master metered", which means those living in the apartments are allowed to use as much electricity, water and gas as they want. At the end of the month the utilities are added up and divided amongst the number of tenants and then billed appropriately. However, the idea of "master metered" brings up the problem of some getting a free ride off those who conserve. For example, take two people who live in the same apartment complex. One of the tenants is very aware of conserving energy. She always turns off the lights when she's out of the room, turns the air up a little in the summer and the heat down in the winter. She basically lives her life being a little uncomfortable for the sake of saving everyone in her building a little money. On the other hand, her neighbor does just the opposite. He never turns out the lights, keeps his apartment ice cold in the summer and nice and toasty in the winter. He even decides against turning his air off when leaves for the weekend, figuring he'll come home to a hot apartment. He feels he is just paying an average of everyone's consumption so why should he not be comfortable? So between the neighbors, the bill at the end of the month remains the same because one gives a little wh ...

Theodore Dwight Weld

Theodore Dwight Weld Theodore Dwight Weld was one of the most effective organizers of the abolitionist movement in the United States, though he was often overshadowed in his own time. And, partly due to his own aversion to publicity, he has often been overlooked by history. For three decades Weld guided many efforts of the abolitionists. And a book he published in 1839, American Slavery As It Is, influenced Harriet Beecher Stowe as she wrote Uncle Toms Cabin. In the early 1830s Weld organized a highly influential series of debates at Lane Seminary in Ohio and trained abolitionist agents who would spread the word throughout the North. He later became involved on Capitol Hill in advising John Quincy Adams and others in promoting anti-slavery agitation in the House of Representatives. Weld married Angelina Grimkà ©, a South Carolina native who had, along with her sister, become a devoted abolitionist. The couple was very well-known in abolitionist circles, yet Weld exhibited an aversion to public notice.  He generally published his writings anonymously and preferred to exert his influence behind the scenes. In the decades after the Civil War Weld avoided discussions of the proper place of the abolitionists in history. He outlived most of his contemporaries, and when he died at the age of 91 in 1895, he was nearly forgotten. Newspapers mentioned his death in passing, noting that he had known and worked with William Lloyd Garrison, John Brown, and other noted abolitionists. Early Life Theodore Dwight Weld was born November 23, 1803, in Hampton, Connecticut. His father was a minister, and the family was descended from a long line of clergymen. During Welds childhood the family moved to western New York State. In the 1820s the traveling evangelist Charles Grandison Finney passed through the countryside, and Weld became a devoted follower of his religious message. Weld entered the Oneida Institute to study to become a minister. He also became very involved in the temperance movement, which at the time was a burgeoning reform movement. A reformist mentor of Weld, Charles Stuart, traveled to England and became involved with the British anti-slavery movement. He wrote back to America, and brought Weld to the anti-slavery cause. Organizing the Abolitionists During this period Weld met Arthur and Lewis Tappan, wealthy New York City merchants who were financing a number of reform movements, including the early abolitionist movement. The Tappans were impressed with Welds intellect and energy, and recruited him to work with them. Weld influenced the Tappan brothers to get involved in the fight against slavery. And in 1831 the philanthropist brothers founded the American Anti-Slavery Society. The Tappan brothers, at Welds urging, also financed the founding a seminary which would train ministers for settlements in the expanding American West. The new institution, Lane Seminary in Cincinnati, Ohio, became the site of a highly influential gathering of anti-slavery activists in February 1834. In two weeks of seminars organized by Weld, activists debated the cause of ending slavery. The meetings would resonate for years, as attendees came away deeply committed to the cause. Weld embarked on a program of training abolitionists who could bring converts to the cause in the style of revivalist preachers. And when a campaign of sending abolitionist pamphlets into the South was thwarted, the Tappan Brothers began to see that Welds idea of educating human agents who would carry the abolitionist message. On Capitol Hill In the early 1840s Weld became involved in the political system, which was not the usual course of action for abolitionists. William Lloyd Garrison, for instance, purposely avoided mainstream politics, as the United States Constitution allowed slavery. The strategy pursued by abolitionists was to use the right to petition in the Constitution to send petitions seeking the end of enslavement to the U.S. Congress. Working with former president John Quincy Adams, who was serving as a congressman from Massachusetts, Weld worked as a critical adviser during the petition campaign.   By the mid-1840s, Weld had essentially withdrawn from an active role in the abolitionist movement, yet he continued to write and advise. He had married Angelina Grimke in 1838, and they had three children. The couple taught at a school they founded in New Jersey. Following the Civil War, when memoirs were written and the rightful place of the abolitionists in history was being debated, Weld chose to remain silent. When he died he was mentioned briefly in newspapers, and was remembered as one of the great abolitionists.

Advantages and disadvantages of on-line shopping Dissertation

Advantages and disadvantages of on-line shopping - Dissertation Example Branding might cause a person to shop on-line because that person is looking for specific brands that might not be available in stores. On the other hand, branding might work to encourage people to shop high street shops, because these shops do a more effective job of branding then do on-line stores. Therefore, it is necessary to examine what branding is. Branding began with the modern age. Modern consumption is also driven by the choices that were being offered in modern society, choices that were not offered in earlier societies, before mass production of goods became the norm. This mass production had a side effect as well, one that would influence the post-modern individual’s obsession with labels and designers – branding became essential, as there were so many goods flooding the market, that companies needed to distinguish their goods from the multitude of other goods that were coming into existence. According to Naomi Klein, this led to competitive branding and, u ltimately, to the rise of designer labels, such as Calvin Klein and Ralph Lauren. Because brands are essentially the same – Coke is not really that much different from Pepsi, Reebok is not much different than Nike, Apples are not appreciably different from PCs – companies must find a way to differentiate themselves from their competitors. Goldman & Papson argue that this has led to a rather cluttered landscape for the world of advertising, as each brand tries to get a leg up on their competitors by branding themselves as somehow different from the rest. One way is by attacking and counterattacking – such as when MCI named AT&T in their advertisements for friends and family, thereby gaining market share away from AT&T, AT&T went on the defensive, deriding MCI's friends and family program as a â€Å"manipulator of personal relations† because the program involved giving MCI a person's information without that person's knowledge. Another way is by showing wha t a product is not – such as when Pringle's potato chips transposed an image of their light chip with that of a guy eating greasy chips that dripped on his shirt (Goldman & Pappas, 1996). Because brands have a hard time saying that their product is better than the other guys, they instead seek to raise their symbolic image value – LL Bean's flannel shirts may be the same in quality as Wal-Mart's, but the image of wearing an LL Bean's shirt makes the value more than Wal-Mart. It is all about the image that has been carefully cultivated in the advertisements for these brands, where the product and the image coming together is known as a â€Å"commodity sign†. This is what is meant when somebody says that one is â€Å"paying for the name† (Goldman & Pappas, 1996). Identity became a construct of consumption, in that people, both men and women, started using consumption not as a way to express one's identity, but to construct it - â€Å"brands are how we figu re out who we are.†(Kacen, 2000). This reflects the fluidity of an individual's identity, and reflects that gender identity is also a fluid concept, as opposed to a fixed attribute (Kacen, 2000). Part of this was made possible by the Nikes and Tommy Hilfigers of the world who are not just selling products, but the image that their brand connotes. Therefore, mere manufacturing has been replaced by marketing (Klein, 2000). Price discounting may to differentiate one’s brand from other brands because of the problem of brand similarity. There is some indication that price discounting may actually hurt a store’s image and the brand image, and that it might not build sales (Grewal et al., 1998). Therefore, whether or not it actually works depends on other factors. One factor is known as the perceived discount. According

Public Education Campaign on Water Conservation Research Paper

Public Education Campaign on Water Conservation - Research Paper Example Most of the efforts on water conservation have been conducted in the urban areas, particularly in the residential sector. According to Woodhouse (2009), the option of increasing the cost of water would not be viable in conserving water in these regions because the current cost is already considered high and demand for water tends to be inelastic. Hence, a voluntary approach has to be adopted through education. This paper analyzes some of the common practices of water conservation giving the benefits that result from these practices. Adopting the planning strategy suggested by United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, UNESCAP (2002), this paper suggests the planning process for a campaign aimed at educating the public on water conservation supported by arguments from other scholarly journals and books. Introduction The security of freshwater continues to be a critical issue globally due to the increase in usage of limited resources by the increasing popul ation with subsequent decrease in availability. The unavailability of freshwater has been largely attributed to increase in pollution, deforestation and inadequate management (Zobeck & Schillinger, 2010). Therefore, to secure a sustainable future with water, there would be the need to improve the efficiency in water supply and usage. According to the UNESCAP (2002), water conservation describes the action taken to ensure efficient usage of water. It could be accomplished either by conserving water resources through efficient storage, transfer and management of raw water or by conserving water supply, which includes consumption without wastage and minimal losses in distribution. From ancient days, various methods for water conservation have been adopted. Canals were constructed so as to convey water to farm lands to improve crop production. This would mostly be accompanied by construction of reservoirs to retain water for future usage, be it agricultural or domestic use. Construction of terraces reduced runoffs while plowed fallowing, deep plowing and contouring ensured retention of moisture particularly in farm lands. Recognizing water capture as â€Å"the first step in water conservation,† Zobeck and Schillinger (2010, p. 3) argue that frequent plowing would, however, make the land devoid of moisture. Practices such as stubble-mulch tillage that emphasized the importance of covering the surface were adopted as water conservation mechanisms. Modern conservation measures include use of water saving appliances and devices such as showers and faucets, toilets, dishwashers, pressure reducing valves and insulated hot water pipes (Green, 2010). Behavioral practices of water conservation include turning off the water when brushing teeth and reducing the amount of water used per person when showering. Other approaches include operational methods where leakages would be detected in time and repaired; financial methods that include deterrent pricing of water tari ffs; and socio-political methods that include public education and legislation. The benefits to be gained from water conservation campaigns are unlimited, with Green (2010) noting that with increased budget allocation to such campaigns, there would be quantitative demand reduction which would lead to documentation of the benefit of the program. These campaigns would make the saved water available to the less privileged that do not have sustainable access to services of water supply. Zobeck and Schillinger (2010) note that adoption of water conservation measures play a critical role in promoting agriculture by curbing erosion and controlling weeds. Nonetheless, scholars concur on water conservati

Hope versus reality-where do you stand Essay Example for Free

Hope versus reality-where do you stand Essay Hope is the quintessential human delusion, simultaneously is the source of the person greatest strength, and the greatest weakness. It is true to say that somewhere between optimism and pessimism is where we usually find realism. Logically, it is impossible to stop yourself from hoping certain things, but it becomes a problem when hope for something good becomes a delusion. It is good to hope for better conditions, but it is bad to call hope a virtue, then use that to justify deluding yourself into thinking that you know things will turn out how you expect them to. All we may agree that hope is essential for us and from experience, many situations may look hopeless to us at first glance, and if we stumble in the hopelessness, we may find things that have the potential to bring about changes in our life. Hope is not the denial of reality, but it is the realization that you cant predict the future. I believe it is natural for humans to adhere to hope and search for change, even in the most hopeless situations. I also believe that everything in this life has a probability that could be positive or negative, so hope is the positive part of the probability, while pessimism is the negative segment of probability. So, we need hope in order to thrive and to live life fulfilled and encouraged. It is essential that we understand how hope develops and how it plays such an important role in our life In contrast, realism is the attitude or practice of accepting a situation as it is and being prepared to deal with it accordingly. So you need to live in reality by controlling your dreams and fantasy. If you feel that your dreams and fantasy are occupying your thinking it is possible to set up your goals and work on achieving them. You have to remember that every time your mind tried to slip into dreams and fantasy you do your best to force yourself to concentrate on what is real. With time you’ll find yourself spending more time in reality more than the time you spend in dreams and fantasy. Don’t be pessimistic and you have to remember that most of the important things in the world have been accomplished by people who have kept on trying when there seemed to be no hope at all- Dale Carnegie.  Finally, it is acceptable to spend some time in hope but don’t live in it, you need to live in reality which is the way in getting things into results.

Scopes Monkey Trial :: essays research papers

I think the Scopes trial brought together a great cast of characters: three-time presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan; America's best defense attorney, Clarence Darrow: and its most popular journalist, H. L. Mencken. It was a trial about ideas, a contest between traditionalism, the faith of our fathers, and modernism, the idea that we test faith with our intellect. And it had what the New York Times called the most memorable event in Anglo-Saxon court history: Darrow's calling of William Jennings Bryan, the prosecutor, to the stand and examining him on his interpretation of the Bible. Seventy-five years later, this trial has stood the test of time. Clarence Darrow was a nearly-70 year old attorney who was largely regarded as America's most eloquent defense attorney. He had the ability to transform almost any courtroom trial into a much larger context, and raised large social and political issues that captured the public imagination. He also had a very good sense of humor, which sometimes got him into trouble, as in the Scopes case, when complaining to the judge after his request to introduce scientific expert testimony had been rejected said, "Why is it that all of our requests are rejected?" The judge answered, "I hope you do not mean to reflect upon the Court?" Darrow replied, "Well, Your Honor has the right to hope." H. L. Mencken was the reporter who played a large role in the trial, and is well-known as one of America's most colorful, acerbic, and in his own way, prejudiced reporters, but his colorful reporting added greatly to our understanding of the trial. William Jennings Bryan was a three-time failed presidential candidate who, in the years preceding the Scopes trial, had transformed himself into a sort of fundamentalist pope. He campaigned against evolution, at one time offering to pay $100 to anyone who personally could prove that he descended from a monkey. If the trial were held today, the law would be held unconstitutional as a violation of the U.S. Constitution's establishment clause in the First Amendment. The trial would thus have been decided on the motion to quash the indictment, and there would have been no witnesses and none of the entertainment that we got in 1925. Scopes' Place in Culture The Scopes trial came at a crossroads in history - as people were choosing to cling to the past or jump into the future.

Regret: Best Friend

We did everything together, and I thought nothing could tear our friendship apart, but I was wrong. As the years past by, Rachel started making more friends and I felt that was being left out a lot and less popular. Our friendship was still there, but until one day, when a little misunderstanding due to Jealousy caused us to drift apart. That misunderstanding was the biggest regret of my teenage years. â€Å"Hey Rachel I heard your birthday is coming up and you are going have a party. Am I invited? † Nicole asked her. â€Å"Am I invited too? A group of girls, her new friends crowded around her table, filled with curiosity whether they were invited. Rachel then whipped out a stack of invitation cards out from her bag and said, â€Å"l got my invitation cards here. You guys will find out whether you got invited later. So, shoo! I'm trying to study here. † The crowd then dispersed, going back to their seats. I wondered if I was being Invited too. Yet I naturally assumed t hat I was as If I was her best friend. In between classes, I saw Rachel Glenn out Invitations. Those who got Invited all squealed In delight upon receiving It.I sat on the edge of my seat, expecting to receive my invitation. But by the end of the day, I left school empty handed. I could not believe I did not receive any invitation from Rachel It's just not fair. Fury and jealousy overwhelmed me. My blood started to boil. Did Rachel really treat me as her best friend? All she cares is popularity. Out of hatred, I tested everybody her biggest secret. The secret that she trusted me wholeheartedly with. Tested and revealed that her parents were divorced. All of the sudden, I heard a familiar voice calling out for me, â€Å"Shania! Here's your invitation! † I stopped momentarily. My blood went cold.Invitation? She Invited me to her arty? â€Å"Here,† she shoved the pink envelope Into my hand, â€Å"I'm sure you are coming. † I nodded my head shakily. Oh no. I shouldn 't have done that! Why did I do it? Worry and anxiety overwhelmed me. There was nothing I could do to take back my actions. Just then Nicole walked out of the school gates and gasped out loud while looking at her phone. She then saw Rachel and approached her, saying, â€Å"l am so sorry that your parents are divorced. † Nicole gave her a quick hug and left. Rachel stood still. Her eyes widened with shock. Why did Nicole say that? The moment Rachel regained her senses, she glared at me.MUD. You are the one behind this. You are the only one who knows my greatest secret. I trusted you, because you are my best friend. I can't believe you told Nicole? You know I hate It when people know about my personal affairs! † â€Å"I'm sorry†¦ I TLD mean to tell everyone your secret! † I apologized to her. â€Å"Everyone? You told everyone? † Muttering to herself, â€Å"l can't believe I was dumb enough to tell you my secret. † She onwards, I made a resolution never to Jump to conclusions so hastily ever again. Friendships took years to build and could be destroyed so rapidly. Regret cursed through me.

Polycystic Ovary Syndrome

Introduction: Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a common endocrinology disorder affecting 15–20% of women in reproductive age worldwide (1).   PCOS characterized by hyperandrogenism and high level of insulin resistance which leads to the dysfunction of the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovary axis, resulting in anovulation and menstrual irregularity (2-6). PCOS is considered the most common cause of anovulatory infertility. Around 90%–95% of an-ovulatory women visiting infertility clinics have PCOS (7). The current first-line infertility treatment in women with polycystic ovary syndrome is Clomiphene Citrate. However, it has drawbacks, including its overall poor efficacy (only a 22% rate of live birth with up to six cycles of clomiphene (8)), ovulation rate of only 46% (9) and an undesirable side-effect profile, including mood changes and hot flushes. Failure either to ovulate (clomiphene resistance), or to conceive with ovulation (clomiphene failure) often leads to the use of more expensive treatment options for infertility that associated with higher multiple pregnancy rates and an increased risk of the ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (10). Insulin-sensitizing agents, such as metformin, have been used successfully to treat women with PCOS (11). However, metformin also has multiple undesirable gastrointestinal side effects such as nausea (61%), vomiting (30%), and diarrhea (65%). (12,13) Furthermore, many women who have PCOS are not satisfied with pharmaceutical treatment. In a survey done on women with PCOS, 99% expressed their desire for effective treatment alternatives to fertility drugs, (14) and as many as 70% of women with PCOS use complementary medicines (15-16). Herbal Medicine is still widely used from world population for approximately 75-80%; this is because that herbal medicine is considered more culturally acceptable, less dangerous and more natural form of treatment (17). In Saudi Arabia, approximately 80% of the population use herbal medicine, and one of the main reasons is the ease of use of herbs that could be taken orally without painful procedure or invasive methods (18). Cinnamon, a commonly used spice, has become a natural product of interest because it has been considered to have health benefits, such as reducing blood glucose, total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and decreasing insulin resistance (19). Cinnamon increases insulin sensitivity likely because of its effect on intermediate metabolites acting at the cellular level (20). Several studies stated that polyphenol polymers isolated from cinnamon could increase insulin-dependent glucose metabolism. (21-23) Cinnamon usually causes no serious side effects. The reported adverse events of cinnamon include headache, heartburn and menstrual cramps (24). In general, herbal medicines are better tolerated than pharmaceutical medications as shown in a systematic review for critical evaluation of clinical efficacy and adverse events of herbal remedies (25). Cinnamon extract may offer a low cost, readily available and relatively easily implemented means of reducing insulin resistance and thereby improving ovulation in women with PCOS.2. Literature Review: A randomized, double-blinded, controlled trial investigating the effect of cinnamon on menstrual cyclicity in women with PCOS, women receiving daily 1.5 g of cinnamon treatment showed significant improvements in menstrual cyclicity, whereas patients receiving placebo did not. Sampling from different patients in the study showed the luteal phase serum progesterone (progesterone level >3 ng/mL), sonographic visualization of corpora lutea, and pregnancy which all support that the bleeding has resulted from ovulatory cycles, rather than merely changes in menstrual flow (24). That suggests that cinnamon supplement may have an effect on ovulation induction in women with PCOS. Regarding the effect of cinnamon on insulin resistance, a study conducted in 2017 involving 66 women with PCOS in a randomized, double?blind placebo?controlled clinical trial. The women in the first group treated by cinnamon capsules 1.5 g/day for three months and the second group by placebo capsules. The homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance (p = .014) reduced after the three months in the cinnamon group compared with the placebo (26). Another randomized control study concluded that oral administration of 1g of cinnamon extract daily for eight weeks was well tolerated and improved insulin sensitivity in nondiabetic women with PCOS (27). A double-blind randomized control study, comparing the effect of cinnamon and metformin on insulin resistance in 112 women with PCOS taking 1g of cinnamon versus 1g of metformin daily, shows that both significantly decreasing the insulin resistance (28). A study in non-PCOS patients with elevated serum glucose, 173 patients were enrolled and given 500mg of cinnamon daily for two months, showed a significant reduction on fasting insulin, glucose, total cholesterol, and LDL cholesterol and enhanced insulin sensitivity (29). There are many studies conducted on metformin as insulin-sensitizing agent on ovulation in PCOS women. In a systematic review, forty-four trials (3992 women) were included for analysis, 38 of them using metformin and involving 3495 women, clinical pregnancy rates were improved for metformin versus placebo (pooled OR 2.31, 95% CI 1.52 to 3.51, 8 trials, 707 women) and for metformin and clomiphene versus clomiphene alone (pooled OR 1.51, 95% CI 1.17 to 1.96, 11 trials, 1208 women) (30). Since the cinnamon have been suggested to improve the insulin resistance in previous studies and taking into account the side effects of metformin, a cinnamon supplement may offer a good and natural alternative to metformin as an insulin-sensitizing agent and thereby improve the ovulation in women with PCOS.3. Rational:The rarely and non-serious reported side effects of cinnamon along with the cost-effectiveness and availability lead to the need of exploring the effectiveness of cinnamon supplement as a complementary medicine for ovulation induction in women with PCOS.4.1 Aim:To determine the effectiveness of cinnamon supplement and clomiphene citrate (CC) combination on ovulation in women with PCOS.4.2 Objectives:Primary Objective:To compare the effectiveness of cinnamon supplement in combination with clomiphene citrate versus clomiphene citrate alone on ovulation in women with PCOS, in King Abdulaziz University Hospital in Jeddah 2018.Secondary Objectives:To measure the difference in insulin resistance after three months of cinnamon supplementation in women with PCOS in King Abdulaziz University Hospital in Jeddah 2018.To determine the effect of cinnamon and CC combination on menstrual cyclicity, approximated by menstrual frequency, during the study period, in women with PCOS in King Abdulaziz University Hospital in Jeddah 2018.To measure the pregnancy rate in women with PCOS in King Abdulaziz University Hospital in Jeddah 2018.To evaluate the quality of life in women with PCOS in King Abdulaziz University Hospital in Jeddah 2018.Materials and Methods Place of study:The study will be carried out in King Abdulaziz University Hospital, Obstetrics and gynecology clinics, in Jeddah 2018. Exclusion criteria:Current pregnancy or lactation.Current use of treatment of infertility.Established diagnosis of diabetes mellitus.Use of Insulin-sensitizing treatment within the past three monthsHormonal treatment involving estrogen or progesterone within the past three months.Known hypersensitivity to cinnamon.Use of statin medication.Any other supplements that contain cinnamon within the past month.BMI 35.Sample Size:To detect a clinically significant difference of 30% between the previously reported systematic review of ovulation rate (~46%) (9) with a one-sided 5% significance level and power of 80%, a sample size of 82 participants (41 per arm) is required. (Fleiss, Statistical Methods for Rates and Proportions, formulas 3.18 &3.19). Randomization:The participants will be randomized in 1:1 fashion using a computer program by trained assistance. Allocation concealment will be ensured using similar bottles labeled by letters A and B to receive either the combination of cinnamon supplement and clomiphene citrate or clomiphene citrate with placebo. The intervention allocation will be blind for both investigators and participants.5.6 Intervention:The Cinnamomum cassia  (C. aromaticum) capsules will be purchase from Spring Valley company (distributed by Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. USA) by the investigator. Placebo capsules will be prepared by Batterjee Pharma Company and will contain 450 mg of starch and 50 mg of cinnamon powder (to improve blindness regarding taste and odor). Shape, size, and color of placebo capsules will be completely similar to the cinnamon capsules.Cinnamon and placebo capsules will be provided to both groups monthly for 12 weeks. Participants will be required to consume two capsules twice per day after meals (2g/day). The last packages of capsules will be checked at the end of the month, and the number of remaining capsules will be counted; after that, new packages will be delivered to patients. All capsules will be given simultaneously with the clomiphene citrate medication. Participants will be asked to keep their normal lifestyle including daily food and physical activity level.The 2g dose of cinnamon is chosen based on published clinical trials in patients with PCOS (8,15,16,17). All participants in both groups will be followed for three months or until pregnancy confirmed. The three month-period has chosen based on a systematic review that showed the effect of cinnamon could be as early as 4 weeks and up to 18 weeks (31).5.7 Adherence:Compliance with diet and medications and interval progress will be monitored with monthly visits with the investigator or his trained assistances along with SMS reminder or WhatsApp messages. Also, participants will be asked to return all study packs (including empty bottles) at every monthly visit.5.8 Patient safety:Patients will be monitored monthly during the study period, and any occurrence of adverse events will be recorded.5.9 Study Outcomes:Primary outcome: Progesterone level > 3ng/mL (ovulation confirmation) or pregnancy confirmed.Secondary outcomes: Changes in insulin resistance, menstrual cyclicity, pregnancy rate and fertility quality of life at the end of the study in comparison with the baseline values. Procedure:The study will be initiated after obtaining approval from the Unit of Biomedical Ethics in King Abdulaziz University and approval from Saudi Food and Drug Authority. All patients will be explained the procedure and risks involved in common, understandable languages and a written informed consent will be obtained. First visit: Patients meeting inclusion and exclusion criteria will be evaluated during the early follicular phase (day 3-7) after a spontaneous or induced menses (medroxyprogesterone acetate 10 mg twice?daily for 5 days) for: Baseline blood work:o (Hormone profile: FSH, LH and testosterone levels).o In day 21 (luteal phase) patients will be tested for progesterone level.o Insulin resistance using homeostasis model of insulin resistance [HOMA-IR] and Quantitative Insulin Sensitivity Check Index [QUICK-I].? QUICK= 1 / (log(fasting insulin  µU/mL) + log(fasting glucose mg/dl))? HOMA-IR= (FPI(mU/l) Ãâ€" FPG (mmol/l))/22.5 Height and weight will be measured and recorded for body mass index (BMI). Diagnosis of oligo-/anovulation will be based on a menstrual pattern of oligo/amenorrhoea (cycle >35 days) and/or a low mid-luteal serum progesterone concentration. Hyperandrogenaemia will be diagnosed either clinically (acne/hirsutism) or biochemically (testosterone ?2.5 nmol/l).Last Visit: At the end of three months, all subjects will be re-evaluated during the early follicular phase (day 3-7) after a spontaneous or induced menses for: Baseline blood work:(Hormone profile: FSH, LH, testosterone levels).o In day 21 patients will be tested for progesterone level.Insulin resistance using homeostasis model of insulin resistance [HOMA-IR] and Quantitative Insulin Sensitivity Check Index [QUICK-I].Height and weight for body mass index (BMI).Menstrual cyclicity, approximated by menstrual frequency, (number menses/number months observed).Pregnancy rate using positive urinary hCG and ultrasound detection of the gestational sac.Assessment of dietary intake: To assess participants' dietary intake, a 24-h food recall will be collected three times during the study (at baseline, middle and end of study). Patients will complete food descriptions including food and drinks (brand names), food preparation (ingredients) in detail as much as possible in the last day. Pictures of food commonly consumed in Saudi Arabia, together with a set of common household measurement tools (glass, cup, soup bowls, plates, teaspoon and tablespoon) will be provided to assist subjects in estimating the portion sizes of the food. Assessment of physical activity levels: IPAQ will be applied to assess the physical activity level of participants. The IPAQ form comprises walking, moderate- intensity and vigorous-intensity activity and will be expressed as metabolic equivalents per minute (MET-min) per week. The levels of physical activity will be categorized into low, moderate and high, based on the IPAQ criteria. Statistical Analysis:Statistical analysis will be performed using SPSS 25. Data will be expressed as mean  ± SD for continuous variables and percentage for non-continuous variables. Normality tests will be assessed through Shapiro-Wilk tests carried out on each parameter before analysis. Intention-to-treat (ITT) analysis will include all randomized subjects, regardless of whether or not they received the study treatments. Per protocol (PP) analysis will include all randomized subjects who received the study drug and were not lost to follow-up. Participants who lost to follow-up will be assumed neither to be pregnant nor to have ovulation in the ITT analysis.Relative risk, relative risk reduction, Number Needed to Treat and Number Needed to Harm will be calculated at 95% confidence interval. Study variables:VariableOperational definitioni.e., indicatorScale of measurementOvulationProgesterone level in capillary bloodContinuous:Progesterone level ;3ng/mLInsulin resistanceHOMA-IR and QUICK-IOrdinal:HOMA-IR Healthy Range: 1.0 (0.5–1.4)?Less than 1.0 means insulin-sensitive which is optimal.?Above 1.9 indicates early insulin resistance.?Above 2.9 indicates significant insulin resistance.QUICK-I range between 0.45 in healthy individuals and 0.30 in diabetics.Lower values reflect greater resistance with values below 0.339 indicating insulin resistance. Menstrual cyclicityMenstrual frequencyContinuous:(No. of menses/ No. of month)Pregnancy rateNo. of pregnancies including live births, induced abortions, and fetal deaths per 1,000Continuous:(Number of pregnancies including live births, induced abortions, and fetal deaths / Number of women aged 15 – 44 years) Ãâ€" 1,000Quality of lifeInfertility quality of life questionnaire Ordinal Ethical considerations:Approval from the Unit of Biomedical Ethics in King Abdulaziz University will be obtained before the start of the study.Informed consent of the participants will be considered an essential prerequisite for enrollment in the study.This study will be registered in Saudi Food and Drug Administration (SFDA) and at Clinicaltrial.gov website.Confidentiality of the response of the participants will be ensured by keeping the collected data secured and used only for the study purpose.Study duration:The recruitment period will be three months; each arm group will be followed for three months, the total study duration with data analysis and writing the thesis will be ten months.Table1: study time frame

The Insanity Plea

The Insanity Plea Free Online Research Papers The concept of defense by insanity has been in existence since ancient Greek and Roman times, although it did not emerge in American history until the mid 1800’s. In 1638, in colonial America, a delusional Dorothy Talbye was hanged for murdering her daughter. At that time, Massachusetts common law made no distinction between mental illness (insanity) and criminal behavior. In America the use of the insanity defense did not first appear until 1859 in a case in Washington D.C. Then, in 1986, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the common law rule that those who have been found to be insane can not be executed (Ford v. Wainwright 477 U.S. 399). There have been many developments, and changes in the defense by insanity, and how the term â€Å"insanity† is defined in a legal sense. Some opponents of the insanity plea believe that psychiatry itself has become a way to justify mercy by making persons â€Å"exceptional† in some way, and therefore not deserving of harsh punishment we as society would deem just and fair consequences for the crime committed. Mental illness itself has not always been recognized as a legitimate disorder and there has often been lacking in understanding it and/or misdiagnosed. What is the legal definition of insanity? If a person is not convicted due to mental insanity, then what becomes of them after court? What are the pros and cons to having the ability to plea insanity? Is there truly such a thing as temporary insanity? What does the Bible say, if anything, about this issue? These are all questions I will explore and answer further throughout this paper. The most influential and most quoted tests of legal insanity are the M’Naughten Rules. In 1843, Daniel M’Naughten shot and killed Edward Drummond, the secretary to the Prime Minister of England. M’Naughten was delusional and under the impression that he was being persecuted by a number of people in England and Scotland. M’Naughten had intended to kill the Prime Minister, Robert Peel, and thought that is exactly who he had killed. The Queen and The House of Lords asked the judges in the M’Naughten trial to explain the tests by which a person could be properly judged criminally insane. The M’Naughten Rules state: The defendant is insane if they have a diseased mind that caused a defect of reason, such that when they acted, they either did not know the act was wrong or didn’t understand the nature and quality of their actions. Critics of the M’Naughten have argued that this emphasis on reason is based on the assumption that cognition is the only or the most important mental capacity with relevance to responsibility. This assumption implies that the mind can be separated into compartments and that cognition is the most important determining factor of behavior. For example, it is implied that cognition, emotion, and volition could be compartmentalized, when in fact that is not the case. Even if it were possible to compartmentalize mental functions, this criticism of the M’Naughten test emphasizes another important point, which states: a person’s mood may color how he perceives his actions, and as a result, what he believes about them. Critics also point out the fact that a person may very well understand their actions but for some reason are unable to control them. M’Naughten ignores the aspect of self-control. Psychiatrists agree that it is possible to understand that oneà ¢â‚¬â„¢s behavior is wrong, but still be unable to stop themselves from committing the act. The 1950’s had seen a growing dissatisfaction with the M’Naughten test. Viewed as rigid and antiquated, it was criticized in both legal and psychiatric circles. Critics were now calling for the introduction of medical evidence of mental illness into the insanity defense equation. Prior to the Durham Rule, some states had modified the M’Naughten test with an â€Å"irresistible impulse† provision, which basically absolves a defendant who can distinguish right and wrong but is nonetheless unable to stop himself from committing an act that he knows to be wrong. (This test is also known as â€Å"the policeman at the elbow† test, in other words, would the defendant have committed the crime if there were a policeman standing at his elbow?) The Durham Rule was first established in the United States District of Columbia in 1954. In the case of Durham v. United States, Judge David Bazelon ruled that â€Å"an accused is not criminally responsible if his unlawful act was the product of a mental disease or defect. The judge had instructed the jury as such: He instructed that if the jury believed beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant was not suffering from a diseased or defective mental condition at the time he committed the criminal act charged, the jury may find him guilty. He then stated that if the jury believed that the defendant was suffering from a diseased or defective mental condition when he committed the act, but believe beyond a reasonable doubt that the act was not the product of such mental abnormality, they may find the defendant guilty. Unless the jury believed beyond a reasonable doubt that either the defendant was not suffering from a diseased or defective mental condition, or that the act was n ot the product of such abnormality, the jury must find the defendant not guilty by reason of insanity. The Durham Rule proved vague and difficult to apply, and many were concerned that the broad definition would exonerate many more defendants than previous. There was too much confusion over whether â€Å"mental disease and defect† should be interpreted as only psychosis or to also include a larger variety of minor disorders as defined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. It was a concern that defendants would begin to use alcoholism or antisocial disorders as excuses for their crimes. It became evident that it was difficult to prove whether the question of a defendant’s actions was a product of their disease was a factual question for the jury, or for expert psychiatric witnesses. Many skeptics felt that it gave psychiatrists and psychologists too much influence in the courtroom. In 1962, The American Law Institute (A.L.I.) set forth a model Insanity Defense Statute. The A.L.I. standard was intended to allow for the introduction of medical and psychiatric evidence as well as soften the M’Naughten standard. In essence, the A.L.I. standard consolidates the principles of the M’Naughten â€Å"right and wrong† rule and the â€Å"irresistible impulse† test. As of 1998, States were split between 2 standards: 22 states used some type of A.L.I. rule, while 26 used a version of the M’Naughten. During the 60’s and 70’s many state courts issued rulings showing a growing concern to protect the civil rights of the mentally ill. At this time many courts eliminated laws providing for automatic confinement of defendants who had been acquitted by reason of insanity. It also struck down an indefinite sentence of confinement. If the evaluations did not find justification for continued confinement, the defendants would be released. After the acquittal of John Hinckley Jr. who attempted to assassinate President Ronald Regan, U.S. Congress responded to the public outrage to the verdict by introducing 26 pieces of legislation designed to abolish and/or modify the insanity defense. During the time of the Hinckley trial, all but one federal circuit had adopted the A.L.I. â€Å"substantial capacity† test, and all the new proposals were devoted to creating a stricter federal standard with the intent to avoid acquittals like Hinckley’s in the future. During the 1980’s through to the 1990’s courts shifted burden and the standard of proof in such a way that made it more difficult to sustain an insanity plea. There are three states that abolished the defense all together: Utah, Montana, and Idaho. The culmination of all of the previous sanity tests, rules, and all standards by which we measure if a defendant is mentally ill and therefore not responsible for their actions, came to a head with the GBMI or Guilty but Mentally Ill verdict. A defendant who receives this verdict is still found legally guilty of the crime they are being tried for, but because they are in fact mentally ill, they have the right to receive mental health treatment while institutionalized. If symptoms desist, however, at that point they must serve the remainder of their sentence in a regular correctional facility. In 2000, there were at least 20 states that have adopted GBMI provisions. So, what becomes of the criminally insane? What happens to a defendant after a judge or jury returns a verdict of insanity does somewhat depend on the crime committed, and on the state in which the trial takes place. In most cases, those found â€Å"not guilty† by reason of insanity are institutionalized in a hospital for severely mentally ill people who have committed crimes. After a period of time, the defendant may request a hearing to determine if he or she is no longer a danger to others or to themselves, or no longer mentally ill, which would make them eligible to be released. Max was a white man in his forties who was brought to a veteran’s hospital after he was arrested and convicted in South Carolina for check forgery. In the past he had been hospitalized in various psychiatric units for treatment of his mental disorders, and both his wife and VA officials argued that he was not responsible for his actions. For this reason, an agreement had been reached whereby he would receive psychiatric treatment rather than a prison sentence. Physical examinations on admission revealed a small man, alert and orientated, with no signs of psychosis or any other physical or mental disorder. A test for syphilis was positive, but lumbar puncture showed no signs of neurological involvement. Engaging and clearly intelligent, Max spoke proudly of his birth in Vienna, his many achievements in sports, and his scholarly work as a student at the University of Heidelberg. He said that at Heidelberg, Kant and Schopenhauer were his special objects of study, and he also mentioned his deep interest in Shakespeare. He spoke of his skill at fencing, remarking that he was well-known, even feared in Heidelberg and Vienna for his deadly skill with the sword. He denied all the criminal offenses that had brought him to the hospital. His medical records showed that he had been admitted to psychiatric hospitals on six previous occasions. During none of these admissions had a symptom of orthodox psychiatric disorder been noted. On his last admission he had initially been friendly and cooperative with the hospital staff, but soon became disruptive in rather petty ways, such as encouraging fights between mildly psychotic patients. Several months before that admission he had been admitted to a veterans hospital in Maryland; he had complained of having blackout spells where he would loose his temper and unknowingly attack people. These spells were especially unfortunate for his victims, he claimed, because he had at one time been the featherweight boxing champion of England. He described his seizures lasting up to ten hours, during which he would convulse so violently as to rattle the windows and shake the slats off his bed. Max had escaped prosecution for many misdeeds thanks to the help of his wife, in spite the fact that since marrying her, he had also undertaken two different bigamous marriages, all this in addition to another previous legal marriage which had ended in divorce. His present wife was the proprietress of a brothel, but even she appeared embarrassed by the behavior of her husband, who apparently intruded frequently upon the brothel’s guests, insisting on reminiscing nostalgically about his sports achievements, often parading and roaring at the closed doors behind which the clients were conducting their business. On the occasion of his present hospital admission, on the ward, Max was very cooperative for a while, but soon became restless and hostile. On one occasion he kicked out an iron grill and escaped from the hospital, taking two psychotic patients with him. He committed petty thefts and started fights on the ward, and on one occasion when he was granted leave from the hospital, he escaped from his attendant through a tiny bathroom window and made his way to the nearest bar. He would ask for a loaf of bread in the presence of his psychiatrist. He would then break off a large chunk and place it in his mouth, chew, and remove, then model it into a large crucifix, complete with pedestal, rosettes and a garland of intertwining leaves. The bread would harden quickly and he began painting these crucifixes and presenting them to staff. Despite all his seemingly odd behavior Max was described as an exceptionally intelligent man. It was believed by those who observed him that Max would easily have been able to earn an M.D. or a Ph.D. at most American Universities. In the weeks following his admission, Max began to get in touch with local members of the community who were interested in welfare work and in helping disabled veterans. Soon these well intentioned people would begin to bring pressure on the hospital to allow Max to rehabilitate himself. On several occasions he was given parole, but each time, sometimes after only a few hours, he would become involved in a fight and be brought back to the hospital by police. He would plea his case claiming he had amnesia, he was schizophrenic, claiming he could communicate with his dead ancestors, and one occasion convinced authorities he was deluded, by claiming he was being chased by baboons. (Excerpt from The Rules of Insanity By: Carl Elliot) What does this man de serve, the psychiatric ward or jail? Who makes that decision? It’s not always a clear cut line. What are the pros and cons of the insanity defense? The pros, and the main reason this defense was ever originally created was the concern by some in the validity and ethics behind punishing a person of a criminal act, if the person committing the act suffers a debilitating mental condition that hinders the person from the ability to execute proper judgment and discernment about the morality of their actions. But with that noble concern is the flip side of the coin. The con to this defense is the repeated abuse of this defense by people who are not mentally ill, but looking for pity and/or a way to escape full consequences of their criminal actions. The insanity defense continues to be a controversy, because those who are acquitted are still usually committed to a hospital for an indeterminate period, which some view as a way to escape their sentence. Is there such a thing as temporary insanity? Yes, there is, however, it is under just as much scrutiny as the regular insanity defense. Lots of sane people are sane merely because they have never had an extremely uncomfortable circumstance that pushed them beyond their capability to cope. Causes for someone to temporarily loose sight of normal rationale could be several different things. Some examples could be, catching a spouse in the act of cheating, the effect of a strong medication, or brainwashing. Such happenings in someone’s life could cause a temporary loss of reasoning ability. The person who committed the crime could have entered a â€Å"dissociative state† briefly and committed an act that, under more normal circumstances, they most likely would not have committed. To serve the purpose of a defense in law, the disorder must show to have caused an absolute alienation of reason, â€Å"ut continua mentis alienation†, â€Å"omni intellectu careatâ € - such a disease that would deprive the defendant of the knowledge of the true aspect and position of things about him, in other words, it hinders the defendant from properly distinguishing between friend or foe. So, what does the Bible have to say about insanity? The Bible does not specifically say whether or not mentally ill people go to heaven. But, there is some biblical evidence that anyone who is not able to make a decision for salvation is covered by Christ’s death. It would be similar to how many commonly believe that children are automatically taken to heaven when they die until they reach the point where they are able to make a decision for or against Christ. When King David suffered the loss of a child, he comforted himself with the thought, â€Å"Can I bring him back again? I will go to him, but he will not return to me† (2 Samuel 12:23) King David was fully aware that one day he would see his child again in heaven. It is from this example that we can see that young children and babies are, by God’s grace, covered for salvation by Christ’s death. I feel we can make a cross reference from this assumption with children, that another group of people who lack the same accountability standards as the rest of us, mentally ill and mentally retarded people are covered by the same salvation principle. It is true that the word of God does not specifically state this. However, this would seem consistent with the character of Christ, as we as Christians are aware of His love, grace, and mercy. Any person who is mentally challenged to the degree that he could not be aware of his sinful state and believe in Christ for himself to receive salvation, would be in the same category as a child and therefore it is not unreasonable to assume that this individual is saved by the grace and mercy of the same God who saves babies and small children. To conclude, I have learned more than I ever thought imaginable about the insanity defense. This has really been a fascinating and incredible journey of research. The insanity defense came into play when the fall of man came into play. We all sin and fall short of the Glory of God. With sin come things that God never intended, like disease of the mind. I have seen more and more that the controversy over the insanity plea will never be completely resolved because it is such a gray area to be in. Only God can ever truly look into the heart of man and see his true heart and mind and intentions. As man with limits to what we can discern about another’s actions or mental capability, we do the best we can to judge those who should face judgment and give help to those who are mentally sick. But until the end of this life, there will always be this issue. Research Papers on The Insanity PleaCapital PunishmentUnreasonable Searches and SeizuresArguments for Physician-Assisted Suicide (PAS)Comparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoStandardized TestingEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenQuebec and CanadaPETSTEL analysis of IndiaThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseThree Concepts of Psychodynamic

Coprolites - Fossil Feces as a Scientific Study

Coprolites - Fossil Feces as a Scientific Study Coprolite (plural coprolites) is the technical term for preserved human (or animal) feces. Preserved fossil feces are a fascinating study in archaeology, in that they provide direct evidence of what an individual animal or human ate. An archaeologist can find dietary remains in storage pits, midden deposits, and within stone or ceramic vessels, but materials found within human fecal matter are clear and unrefutable evidence that a particular food was consumed. Key Takeaways: Coprolites Coprolites are fossilized or preserved human or animal feces, and the focus of scientific research since the 1950s.  Studied contents include plant and animal remains, intestinal parasites and mites, and DNA.  Depending on the context they are found in, coprolites provide information about the diet and health of an individual mammal or a community.  Two other classes of the scientific study of excrement are sewage or cesspit deposits, and intestinal or gut contents.   Coprolites are a ubiquitous feature of human life, but they preserve best in dry caves and rock shelters and are occasionally discovered in sand dunes, dry soils, and swamp margins. They contain evidence of diet and subsistence, but they also can contain information about disease and pathogens, gender, and ancient DNA, evidence in a manner that is not readily available elsewhere. Three Classes In the study of human excrement, there are generally three classes of preserved fecal remains that are found archaeologically: sewage, coprolites, and intestinal contents. Sewage or Cess, including privy pits or latrines, cesspits, sewers, and drains, contain largely mixed assemblages of human feces together with kitchen and other organic and inorganic wastes. When they are found well-preserved, particularly when water-logged, cess deposits provide valuable information on the community or household diet and living conditions.Coprolites are individual fossil or subfossil feces, preserved through charring, mineralization, or found as desiccated samples in caves and extremely arid places. Each sample provides evidence for foods eaten by an individual, and if found in a latrine area can also reveal community-wide diets.Intestinal or Gut Contents refers to preserved human remains found within the intestines of well-preserved human or animal bodies. These are of the most value of the three for a study of an individual, because they are essentially uncontaminated remains which hold information on at most one or two meals, in fact, the last meal that the indiv idual consumed. Gut contents are relatively rare discoveries, found only when whole humans are preserved, in the case of natural or (if not too extensive) cultural mummification, freezing or freeze-drying (for example, Otzi the Tyrolean Iceman), or waterlogging (such as European Iron Age bog bodies). Content A human or animal coprolite can contain a diverse range of biological and mineral materials. Plant remains found in fossil feces include partly digested seeds, fruits, and fruit parts, pollen, starch grains, phytoliths, diatoms, burned organics (charcoal), and small plant fragments. Animal parts include tissue, bones, and hair. Other types of objects found in fecal matter include intestinal parasites or their eggs, insects, or mites. Mites, in particular, identify how the individual stored food; the presence of grit could be evidence of food processing techniques; and burned food and charcoal is evidence of cooking techniques. Studies on Steroids Coprolite studies are sometimes referred to as microhistology, but they include a wide range of topics: paleo diet, paleo-pharmacology (the study of ancient medicines), paleoenvironment and seasonality; biochemistry, molecular analysis, palynology, paleobotany, paleozoology, and ancient DNA. Those studies require that the feces be rehydrated, using a liquid (typically a water solution of tri-sodium phosphate) to reconstitute the feces, unfortunately also including the odors. Then the reconstituted material is examined under detailed light and electron microscope analysis, as well as subjected to radiocarbon dating, DNA analysis, macro- and micro-fossil analyses and other studies of inorganic content. Coprolite studies have also included the investigations of chemical, immunological protein, steroids (which determine sex), and DNA studies, in addition to phytoliths, pollen, parasites, algae, and viruses. Classic Coprolite Studies Hinds Cave, a dry rock shelter in southwest Texas which had been used as a latrine for hunter-gatherers about six thousand years ago contained several deposits of feces, 100 samples of which were collected by archaeologist Glenna Williams-Dean in the late 1970s. The data Dean collected during her Ph.D. research have been studied and analyzed by generations of scholars since that time. Dean herself ran pioneer experimental archaeology studies using students to provide test fecal matter arising from documented dietary input, an unparalleled data set even today. Foodstuffs recognized in the Hinds Cave included agave, opuntia, and allium; seasonality studies indicated that the feces had been deposited between winter-early spring and summer. One of the earliest discovered pieces of credible evidence for pre-Clovis sites in North America was from coprolites discovered at Paisley 5 Mile Point Caves in Oregon state. The recovery of 14 coprolites was reported in 2008, the oldest individually radiocarbon dated to 12,300 RCYBP (14,000 calendar years ago). Unfortunately, all of them were contaminated by the excavators, but several included ancient DNA and other genetic markers for Paleoindian people. Most recently, biomarkers found in the earliest dated specimen suggest it was not human after all, although Sistiaga and colleagues had no explanation for the presence of Paleoindian mtDNA within it. Other credible pre-Clovis sites have been found since that time. History of the Study The most important proponent of research into coprolites was Eric O. Callen (1912–1970), a maverick Scottish botanist interested in plant pathologies. Callen, with a Ph.D. in botany from Edinburgh, worked as a plant pathologist at McGill University and in the early 1950s, one of his colleagues was Thomas Cameron (1894–1980), a member of the parasitology faculty. In 1951, archaeologist Junius Bird (1907–1982) visited McGill. A few years prior to his visit, Bird had discovered coprolites at the site of Huaca Prieta de Chicama in Peru and collected a few fecal samples from the intestines of a mummy found at the site. Bird gave the samples to Cameron and asked him to search for evidence of human parasites. Callen learned of the samples and asked for a few samples of his own to study, to look for traces of fungi that infect and destroy maize. In their article recounting Callans importance to the microhistology, American archaeologists Vaughn Bryant and Glenna Dean point out how remarkable it is that this very first study of ancient human coprolites was conducted by two scholars with no formal training in anthropology. Callans role in the pioneering study included the identification of a suitable rehydration process, still used today: a weak solution of trisodium phosphate used by zoologists in similar studies. His research was necessarily restricted to macroscopic studies of the remains, but the specimens did contain a wide variety of macrofossils that reflected the ancient diet. Callan, who died conducting research at Pikimachay, Peru in 1970, is credited with inventing techniques and promoting the study at a time when microhistology was disparaged as bizarre research. Selected Sources Bryant, Vaughn M., and Glenna W. Dean. Archaeological Coprolite Science: The Legacy of Eric O. Callen (1912–1970). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 237.1 (2006): 51–66. Print.Camacho, Morgana, et al. Recovering Parasites from Mummies and Coprolites: An Epidemiological Approach. Parasites Vectors 11.1 (2018): 248. Print.Chaves, Sà ©rgio Augusto de Miranda, and Karl J. Reinhard. Critical Analysis of Coprolite Evidence of Medicinal Plant Use, Piauà ­, Brazil. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 237.1 (2006): 110–18. Print.Dean, Glenna W. The Science of Coprolite Analysis: The View from Hinds Cave. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 237.1 (2006): 67–79. Print.Reinhard, Karl J., et al. Understanding the Pathoecological Relationship between Ancient Diet and Modern Diabetes through Coprolite Analysis: A Case Example from Antelope Cave, Mojave County, Arizona. Current Anthropology 53.4 (2012): 506–12. Print.W ood, Jamie R., and Janet M. Wilmshurst. A Protocol for Subsampling Late Quaternary Coprolites for Multi-Proxy Analysis. Quaternary Science Reviews 138 (2016): 1–5. Print.